Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs are aromatic hydrocarbons with two or more combined benzene rings in different conformations Lawal, , that do not contain heteroatoms or carry substituents Wenzl et al. One of the main source of human exposure is the dietary intake of PAHs Duan et al. Food products can be contaminated by PAHs that exist in the surrounding environment, but also throughout food processing and cooking Lawal, Smoking is a traditional curing process that is applied to certain type of cured meat products.
Smoking serves preservation purposes, since it inhibits the growth of molds and bacteria on the product surface, but also delays lipid oxidation, and adds a characteristic smoky flavor Holck et al. Hence, the EFSA panel proposed the use of a specific group of four-PAH4 benzo a pyrene, benz a anthracene, benzo b fluoranthene, and chrysene or eight-PAH8 benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[ghi]perylene, chrysene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene PAHs to evaluate the occurrence and toxicity of PAHs in food products EFSA, PAHs profiles in smoked meat products have been studied in different product types and manufacturing practices smoking wood, smoking practices Roseiro et al.
PAHs profiles of Portuguese traditional dry-fermented sausages from south Portugal have been studied Santos et al. However, the effect of starters on PAHs content has been given little attention. Elias et al. Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites capable of causing disease that may vary widely in their toxicity. They have a number of adverse effects on health, affecting the immune system, nervous system, liver, kidneys, blood, and some mycotoxins are known to be carcinogens.
The toxic effects of mycotoxins may be either acute after a single exposure or chronic after repeated exposure. The most important mycotoxins in terms of effects on health are the aflatoxins, ochratoxin A OTA , patulin and the Fusarium toxins.
Aflatoxins are considered to be the most toxic ones and long-term low level exposure to aflatoxins has been associated with liver diseases Afum et al.
Recent studies have highlighted the presence of OTA, an important secondary metabolite of several fungi belonging to the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus , in dry-cured hams and sausages of different origins Iacumin et al.
The inoculation of a P. Furthermore, Candida guilliermondii , Endomycopsis fibuliger , and P. The use of starters, particular LAB, as competitive microbiota in fermented meat products, may play a double role of inhibiting or controlling the growth of food pathogens or food spoilage microorganisms, with the consequently increased shelf-life, whilst retaining the sensory properties of the products, namely color, flavor, texture, and nutritional value Reis et al.
Furthermore, the growth of LAB in meat products may interfere with the growth of spoilage or pathogenic bacteria by competition for nutrients and living space adhesion on the product Pragalaki et al. Additionally, the role of molds, such as P. Most of these undesired fungi, belong to the genera Aspergillus , Penicillium , and Fusarium , and produce mycotoxins Sonjak et al.
In summary, the direct competition between starter cultures and potential food pathogens by competitive exclusion may be an important mechanism to restrict the growth of undesired microorganisms Di Gioia et al. Starter cultures are an important tool that contributes to ensure the safety of fermented meat products.
Thus, the use of starter cultures may reduce the need for chemical additives, such as nitrites and nitrates. Furthermore, the lower residual levels of nitrates and nitrites detected in fermented meat products inoculated with starter cultures are due to the ability of starters to metabolize those compounds. Besides their beneficial effect on safety, which should be the main reason for their use, starters may play other important roles in fermented meat products, such as increasing the reproducibility of product characteristics between batches, shortening the manufacturing times, and improving sensory characteristics.
Although the positive effect of starters in the control or reduction of the microbiological hazards present in fermented meat products, with the concomitant reduction in the levels of biogenic amines, has been extensively studied, more studies are needed on the role of starters in controlling the content in nitrosamines or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. ML drafted the whole manuscript.
MP drafted the lactic acid bacteria section of the manuscript. ME critically revised the manuscript and drafted the conclusions. All authors contributed to the writing and the critical revision of the manuscript. This work was supported by project PDR The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Afum, C. Public Health Ammor, S. Antibacterial activity of lactic acid bacteria against spoilage and pathogenic bacteria isolated from the same meat small-scale facility: 1Screening and characterization of the antibacterial compounds. Food Control 17, — Antimicrobial activity of reuterin in combination with nisin against food-borne pathogens. Food Microbiol. Antimicrobial activity of nisin, reuterin, and the lactoperoxidase system on Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in cuajada, a semisolid dairy product manufactured in Spain.
Dairy Sci. Baka, A. Effect of selected autochthonous starter cultures on processing and quality characteristics of Greek fermented sausages. LWT Food Sci. Bassi, D. Comparing natural and selected starter cultures in meat and cheese fermentations. Food Sci. Berni, E. Google Scholar. Biscola, V. Isolation and characterization of a nisin-like bacteriocin produced by a Lactococcus lactis strain isolated from charqui, a Brazilian fermented, salted and dried meat product.
Meat Sci. Bosse, R. Recent advances in cured raw ham manufacture. Bouvard, V. Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. Lancet Oncol. Bover-Cid, S. Mixed starter cultures to control biogenic amine production in dry fermented sausages. Food Prot. Relationship between biogenic amine contents and the size of dry fermented sausages. Bozkurt, H. Effects of starter cultures and additives on the quality of Turkish style sausage sucuk.
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Hertzberger, R. H2O2 production in species of the Lactobacillus acidophilus group: a central role for a novel NADH-dependent flavin reductase.
Holck, A. Two moles of lactate are required for this reaction, one being converted to 1 mol 1,2-PDO and the second to 1 mol acetic acid maintaining cofactor balance Elferink et al. The titers are however too low. Introduction of methylglyoxal synthase gene in Lb.
Simultaneously, n -propanol was obtained from 1,2-PDO by the action of the Pdu pathway Christensen et al. Production of EPS of different compositions by wide range of LAB is well known; they alter the rheological properties of the matrix in which they are dispersed and also provide prebiotic effect, stress tolerance and facililtate biofilm formation Caggianiello, Kleerebezem and Spano ; Zeidan et al.
Increasing demand for EPS with interesting properties has led to efforts in improving the level of production by natural or metabolic engineering approaches. Overexpression of the enzymes involved in the synthesis of intermediates such as phosphoglucomutase and UDP-glucose phosphorylase has led to varying levels of improvements in different LAB Boels et al. An interesting example is that of hyaluronic acid HA , a copolymer of UDP-glucuronic acid and UDP-acetylglucosamine, with applications in medicine, cosmetics and specialty foods.
Even though several LAB lack the ability to synthesize many vitamins, certain strains have been shown to produce or possess genes related to the biosynthesis of water soluble vitamins belonging to the B groups such as riboflavin, folate and Vitamin B12 that are essential cofactors for important metabolic activities. Capozzi et al. Riboflavin production has been noted in strains of Lb.
Pseudovitamin B12, a corrinoid like molecule, was isolated Santos et al. Subsequently, production of active Vitamin B12 was demonstrated in two L. More recently, isolation of two Lb. LAB producing vitamins have primarily attracted interest due to the possibility of in situ fortification of the foods and for production of novel vitamin-enriched foods Hugenholtz ; LeBlanc et al.
Overexpression of the genes involved in folate biosynthesis and of p -aminobenzoic acid has led to increased folate production in L. Different strategies have been applied to transform riboflavin consuming strains to producer strains by genetic engineering by overexpression of riboflavin biosynthetic genes Burgess et al.
LAB producing more than one vitamin were constructed by overexpressing folate biosynthesis genes in L. Several LAB isolated from traditional fermented foods including Lb. It is produced by decarboxylation of L-glutamate in a reaction catalyzed by glutamate decarboxylase, and high yields have been reported by fed-batch cultivation of Lb. Although expression of plant genes in LAB is still relatively scarce as compared to that in E. Glycerol acts as an electron acceptor and not as a carbon source in several heterofermentative LAB like Lb.
Industrial production of biobased 1,3-PDO is currently done from glucose using engineered E. Production of 1,3-PDO from glycerol by wild type microbes including the Lactobacillus species and Klebsiella pneumonia led to an increasing interest in understanding the metabolic pathway involved. Overview of the propanediol-utilization pathway.
Right Dehydration of 1,2-propanediol 1,2-PDO to propionaldehyde followed by reduction to n-propanol n-POH and oxidation to propionic acid via propionyl-CoA and propionyl phosphate as intermediates.
Studies with Lb. By producing Lb. The genome sequence of Lb. The enzymes of the Pdu pathway are encoded by a pdu operon that also codes for the structural proteins making up the MCP housing the pathway Sriramulu et al. The MCP protects the cells from the toxic effects of the aldehyde intermediate. The diol dehydratase PduCDE is optimally active with glycerol and 1,2-PDO C3 polyols as substrates, and displays some activity with ethane-1,2-diol C2 and 1,2-butanediol C4 to produce corresponding aldehydes.
On the other hand, the enzymes PduQ and PduP of the reductive and oxidative branches of the Pdu pathway were optimally active with 3-HPA but also showed activity with C3-C10 aliphatic aldehydes, suggesting a broad substrate scope Chen and Hatti-Kaul Efficient production of 1,3-PDO by co-feeding glucose or lignocellulose hydrolysate to Lb.
A limitation with such a process however is the complex, expensive downstream processing for recovery of the pure polyol from the product mixture containing also organic acids and ethanol. This problem can be overcome by the use of resting cells, which requires first the production of cell biomass in which the Pdu pathway is induced by including low concentration of glycerol in the medium and then using the harvested cells to transform glycerol in aqueous solution.
Dishisha et al. As 3-HP and 1,3-PDO can be easily separated from each other, their co-production is interesting even from an industrial perspective. The whole cells are used as the biocatalyst, which lowers the cost of enzyme isolation and purification, and moreover the enzymes are more stable in the intracellular milieu.
The GRAS and non-GMO status of these bacteria is of course an added advantage because of higher consumer acceptance even if they are not included in the final product. In some cases, however, the enzymes are isolated for use or expressed in a heterologous host for biotransformations. One of the most successful examples of biocatalysis is the use of ADH activity of different lactobacilli for catalyzing bioreduction of prochiral ketones to optically active alcohols Scheme 1 , which are important pharmaceutical intermediates.
Enantioselective reduction of a ketone to a corresponding R -alcohol by Lactobacillus sp. Recombinant ADHs from Lb. The enzymes have broad substrate scope with high regio- and enantioselectivity, and are NADPH dependent, which needs to be regenerated for lowering the cofactor costs.
The enzyme remains active in the presence of organic solvents, supercritical fluids or gaseous reactants. Use of the recombinant Lb. Here, the NADPH was regenerated using a coupled glucose dehydrogenase catalyzed oxidation of the co-substrate glucose. The bioreduction process was improved to give high selectivity and space-time yield by using immobilized Lb.
More recently, resting cells of Lb. The reactions were performed in aqueous medium with high yields, using pure glucose, lactose, spruce lignocellulose hydrolysate and cheese whey, respectively, as the sources of reducing equivalents. Chemo-enzymatic synthesis of S -Rivastigmine Vitale et al.
The key step is the bioreduction of 3-acetylphenyl- N -ethyl- N -methylcarbamate, obtained from commercially available 3-hydroxyacetophenone, using whole cells of Lb.
Cofactor regeneration was achieved by coupling the reaction with Candida boidinii formate dehydrogenase catalyzed oxidation of ammonium formate to CO 2 and NH 3.
Cofactor regeneration was achieved by oxidation of ammonium formate used as the co-substrate catalyzed by formate dehydrogenase Tao and McGee NDTs from Lb. Covalent immobilization of the Lb. Deglycosylation of ginsenosides ginseng saponins , the primary active components of ginseng roots used as a traditional herb in South East Asia, increases their biological potency. The whole cells of Lb.
Microbial hydration of unsaturated fatty acids oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid present in vegetable oils provides a facile route for the production of hydroxyl fatty acids with a variety of applications as starting materials for industrial- and fine chemicals, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Biotransformation using an anaerobic culture of Lb. Regio- and stereoselective hydration of oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid using whole cells of Lb. Furthermore, several LAB, particularly the Lactobacillus species, catalyze the transformation of linoleic acid through linoleate isomerase activity to conjugated linoleic acid isomers, which are reported to possess beneficial effects on humans including anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-carcinogenic activities Kishino et al.
LAB have a unique position in being important tools for combining the production of food and non-food products in the biobased economy.
This review has provided a glimpse of the increasing trend in utilizing LAB and their enzymes for the production of platform-, specialty-, fine chemicals, nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical intermediates. With the availability of genome sequences and the high throughput omics tools, their use will benefit from the systems biology approach through combining mathematical modeling techniques with functional genomics data Teusink and Smid ; de Vos In order to be competitive with other established organisms as industrial production hosts, LAB cells need to be designed for growth on simple media, direct hydrolysis of biomass polysaccharides Okano et al.
In some cases, two-steps process involving cell growth and product s formation, respectively, with dynamic metabolic control can provide an optimal strategy for better control and improved volumetric rates, titers and yields Dishisha, Pyo and Hatti-Kaul ; Burg et al.
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The sugar is added with the spices. Without the sugar, the starter culture will not have sufficient food to produce lactic acid.
For even better colour, always use 0. Use a gram package for every kg meat. Shake package well before opening.
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